Cells were transfected using jetPEI in 24-well plates. T47D cells (90,000 cells per well) and HeLa cells (80,000 cells per well) were transfected with 0.2 mg reporter construct and 0.05 mg normalizing plasmid. The ratio of DNA to jetPEI was 1:2. MC3T3-E1 cells (45,000 cells per well) and HOS cells (68,000 cells per well) were transfected with 0.2 mg reporter construct and 0.1 mg normalizing plasmid with a charge ratio of 1:2 or 1:4, respectively. Cells were seeded in culture media containing 3% FCS (for HOS cells 10% FCS). On the next day cells were rinsed once with the appropriate culture medium followed by the addition of 0.45 ml of medium and 50 ml of DNA mixed with jetPEI. Cells were then incubated for 4–6 h at 37°C.

Aberrant activation of the nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) transcription system contributes to cancer progression, and has a harmful effect on bone health. Several major components of the NFkB pathway such as IkB Kinase (IKK) and the NFkB subunits contain cysteine residues that are critical for their activity. The interaction of electrophiles with these cysteine residues results in NFkB inhibition. Carotenoids, hydrophobic plant pigments, are devoid of electrophilic groups, and we have previously demonstrated that carotenoid derivatives, but not the native compounds activate the Nrf2 transcription system. The aim of the current study was to examine whether carotenoid derivatives inhibit NFkB, and, if so, to determine the molecular mechanism underpinning the inhibitory action. We report in the present study that a mixture of oxidized derivatives, prepared by ethanol extraction from partially oxidized lycopene preparation, inhibited NFkB reporter gene activity. In contrast, the intact carotenoid was inactive. A series of synthetic dialdehyde carotenoid derivatives inhibited reporter activity as well as several stages of the NFkB pathway in both cancer and bone cells. The activity of the carotenoid derivatives depended on the reactivity of the electrophilic groups in reactions such as Michael addition to sulfhydryl groups of proteins. Specifically, carotenoid derivatives directly interacted with two key proteins of the NFkB pathway: the IKKbeta and the p65 subunit. Direct interaction with IKKbeta was found in an in vitro kinase assay with a recombinant enzyme. The inhibition by carotenoid derivatives of p65 transcriptional activity was observed in a reporter gene assay performed in the presence of excess p65. This inhibition action resulted, at least in part, from direct interaction of the carotenoid derivative with p65 leading to reduced binding of the protein to DNA as evidenced by electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) experiments. Importantly, we found by using mutation in key cysteine residues of both p65 and IKK that specific thiol groups are essential for NFkB inhibition by carotenoid derivatives. In conclusion, we propose that electrophilic carotenoid derivatives contribute to cancer prevention as well as bone health maintenance via the inhibition of the NFkB transcription system. Pivotal thiol groups of both IKK and p65 play a key role in this process.